COMPARING INVENTORY METHODS

COMPARING INVENTORY METHODS

The following table reveals that the amount of gross profit and ending inventory numbers appear quite different, depending on the inventory method selected:
The results above are consistent with the general rule that LIFO results in the lowest income (assuming rising prices, as was evident in the Gonzales example), FIFO the highest, and weighted average an amount in between. Because LIFO tends to depress profits, you may wonder why a company would select this option; the answer is sometimes driven by income tax considerations. Lower income produces a lower tax bill, thus companies will tend to prefer the LIFO choice. Usually, financial accounting methods do not have to conform to methods chosen for tax purposes. However, in the USA, LIFO “conformity rules” generally require that LIFO be used for financial reporting if it is used for tax purposes. Accounting theorists may argue that financial statement presentations are enhanced by LIFO because it matches recently incurred costs with the recently generated revenues. Others maintain that FIFO is better because recent costs are reported in inventory on the balance sheet. Whichever side of this debate you find yourself, it is important to note that the inventory method in use must be clearly communicated in the financial statements and related notes. Companies that use LIFO will frequently augment their reports with supplement data about what inventory would be if FIFO were instead used. No matter which method is selected, consistency in method of application should be maintained. This does not mean that changes cannot occur; however, changes should only be made if financial accounting is improved.
SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION
As was noted earlier, another inventory method is specific identification. This method requires a business to identify each unit of merchandise with the unit’s cost and retain that identification until the inventory is sold. Once a specific inventory item is sold, the cost of the unit is assigned to cost of goods sold. Specific identification requires tedious record keeping and is typically only used for inventories of uniquely identifiable goods that have a fairly high per-unit cost (e.g., automobiles, fine jewelry, and so forth).
PERPETUAL INVENTORY SYSTEMS
All of the preceding illustrations were based on the periodic inventory system. In other words, the ending inventory was counted and costs were assigned only at the end of the period. A more robust system is the perpetual system. With a perpetual system, a running count of goods on hand is maintained at all times. Modern information systems facilitate detailed perpetual cost tracking for those goods.
PERPETUAL FIFO
The following table reveals the application of the perpetual inventory system for Gonzales — using a FIFO approach:
Two points come to mind when examining this table. First, there is considerable detail in tracking inventory using a perpetual approach; thank goodness for computers. Second, careful study is needed to discern exactly what is occurring on each date. For example, look at April 17 and note that 3,000 units remain after selling 7,000 units. This is determined by looking at the preceding balance data on March 5 (consisting of 10,000 total units (4,000 + 6,000)), and removing 7,000 units as follows: all of the 4,000 unit layer, and 3,000 of the 6,000 unit layer. Remember, this is the FIFO application, so the layers are peeled away based on the chronological order of their creation. In essence, each purchase and sale transaction impacts the residual composition of the layers associated with the item of inventory. Realize that this type of data must be captured and maintained for each item of inventory if the perpetual system is to be utilized; a task that was virtually impossible before cost effective computer solutions became commonplace. Today, the method is quite common, as it provides better “real-time” data needed to run a successful business. JOURNAL ENTRIES: The table above provides information needed to record purchase and sale information. Specifically, Inventory is debited as purchases occur and credited as sales occur. Following are the entries:
3-5-XX Inventory
96,000
Accounts Payable
96,000
Purchased $96,000 of inventory on account (6,000 X $16)
4-17-XX Accounts Receivable
154,000
Sales
154,000
Sold merchandise on account (7,000 X $22)
4-17-XX Cost of Goods Sold 96,000
Inventory
96,000
To record the cost of merchandise sold ((4,000 X $12) + (3,000 X $16))
9-7-XX Inventory
136,000
Accounts Payable
136,000
Purchased $136,000 of inventory on account (8,000 X $17)
11-11-XX Accounts Receivable
150,000
Sales
150,000
Sold merchandise on account (6,000 X $25)
11-11-XX Cost of Goods Sold
99,000
Inventory
99,000
To record the cost of merchandise sold ((3,000 X $16) + (3,000 X $17))
Let’s see how these entries impact certain ledger accounts and the resulting financial statements:
If you are very perceptive, you will note that this is the same thing that resulted under the periodic FIFO approach introduced earlier. So, another general observation is in order: The FIFO method will produce the same financial statement results no matter whether it is applied on a periodic or perpetual basis. This occurs because the beginning inventory and early purchases are peeled away and charged to cost of goods sold — whether the associated calculations are done “as you go” (perpetual) or “at the end of the period” (periodic).
PERPETUAL LIFO
LIFO can also be applied on a perpetual basis. This time, the results will not be the same as the periodic LIFO approach (because the “last-in” layers are constantly being peeled away, rather than waiting until the end of the period). The following table reveals the application of a perpetual LIFO approach. Study it carefully, this time noting that sales transactions result in a peeling away of the most recent purchase layers. The journal entries are not repeated here for the LIFO approach. Do note, however, that the accounts would be the same (as with FIFO); only the amounts would change.
MOVING AVERAGE
The average method can also be applied on a perpetual basis, earning it the name “moving average” approach. This technique is considerably more involved, as a new average unit cost must be computed with each purchase transaction. For the last time, we will look at the Gonzales Chemical Company data:
The resulting financial data using the moving-average approach are:
As with the periodic system, observe that the perpetual system produced the lowest gross profit via LIFO, the highest with FIFO, and the moving-average fell in between.
LOWER OF COST OR MARKET ADJUSTMENTS
Although every attempt is made to prepare and present financial data that are free from bias, accountants do employ a degree of conservatism. Conservatism dictates that accountants avoid overstatement of assets and income. Conversely, liabilities would tend to be presented at higher amounts in the face of uncertainty. This is not a hardened rule, just a general principle of measurement. In the case of inventory, a company may find itself holding inventory that has an uncertain future; meaning the company does not know if or when it will sell. Obsolescence, over supply, defects, major price declines, and similar problems can contribute to uncertainty about the “realization” (conversion to cash) for inventory items. Therefore, accountants evaluate inventory and employ “lower of cost or market” considerations.” This simply means that if inventory is carried on the accounting records at greater than its market value, a write-down from the recorded cost to the lower market value would be made. In essence, the Inventory account would be credited, and a Loss for Decline in Market Value would be the offsetting debit. This debit would be reported in the income statement as a charge against (reduction in) income.
MEASURING MARKET VALUE
Market values are very subjective. In the case of inventory, applicable accounting rules define “market” as the replacement cost (not sales price!) of the goods. In other words, what would it cost for the company to acquire or reproduce the inventory? However, the lower-of-cost-or-market rule can become slightly more complex because the accounting rules further specify that market not exceed a ceiling amount known as “net realizable value” (NRV = selling price minus completion and disposal costs). The reason is this: occasionally “replacement cost” for an inventory item could be very high (e.g., a supply of slide rules at an office supply store) even though there is virtually no market for the item and it is unlikely to produce much net value when it is sold. Therefore, “market” for purposes of the lower of cost or market test should not exceed the net realizable value. Additionally, the rules stipulate that “market” should not be less than a floor amount, which is the net realizable value less a normal profit margin. What we have then, is the following decision process:
Step 1: Determine Market — replacement cost, not to exceed the ceiling nor be less than the floor.
Step 2: Report inventory at the lower of its cost or market (as determined in step 1). To illustrate, consider the following four different inventory items, and note that the “cost” is shaded in light yellow and the appropriate “market value” is shaded in tan (step 1). The reported value is in the final row, and corresponds to the lower of cost or market:
APPLICATION OF THE LOWER-OF-COST-OR-MARKET RULE
Despite the apparent focus on detail, it is noteworthy that the lower of cost or market adjustments can be made for each item in inventory, or for the aggregate of all the inventory. In the latter case, the good offsets the bad, and a write-down is only needed if the overall market is less than the overall cost. In any event, once a write-down is deemed necessary, the loss should be recognized in income and inventory should be reduced. Once reduced, the Inventory account becomes the new basis for valuation and reporting purposes going forward. Write-ups of previous write-downs (e.g., if slide rules were to once again become hot selling items and experience a recovery in value) would not be permitted under GAAP